stock :: essays research papers

Khaled BitarWhat were the causes of the 1929 railway line food foodstuffplace crash and the 1987 stock market crash? What are the differences between the causes?     In the 1920s stock was start-off issued by companies. Companies issued stock after they went public in order to delineate money. When traders buy stock, they were buying from the company and a stake in the company. On October 24, 1929, (a.k.a. Black Thursday) the stock market fell 9% and five days later the market fell an unprecedented 17.3%. About 29 jillion shares of stock changed owners causing, at the time, the biggest stock market crash in the archives of the United States.      In the decade before the crash, America was favourable and ware was soaring. The GNP increased by 40% and average income grew 30% passim the decade. There was an abnormally high level of investment and traders were overwhelmed with confidence.      When the stock market crashed on Black Thursday, traders were still confident because of President Hoovers declaration that a recovery was imminent.      Despite the general optimism, the market crashed once more causing the great depression. The effects were devastating. Over the next three years, the unemployment score rose to 13.6 meg people and GNP decreased 45 million dollars.      There are many causes to the 1929 stock market crash including speculation, WWI, strange investment, and a scandal that could have played a minor role.     The 1929 stock market was a bull market fueled by speculation. speculation inflated stock prices beyond what they were worth because of the large amount of traders. supposal is when traders think that a stock has much more value and potential then it really does. Traders would buy a stock that they think is thriving and when they realize that the company is losing money, they sell causing the market to decrease. (i.e. people expend in ebay and then selling after seeing ebays earnings.)       umteen investors were not very experienced and they believed that whenever their stock went down, they felt selling was the beat out option which fueled the crash even further.      Because of the thriving market, many loaned money from banks and invested in the stock market. When it crashed, they could not pay back the loans and the banks lost money. The market misled the banks as they thought loaning traders money would be very lucrative. The national Reserve was a cause of the 1929 stock market crash because it essentially owned the government and fueled the speculation.

Alternative Dispute Resolution Essay -- ADR Business Management Negoti

Alternative scrap Re resolventConsider conservatively the facts of the case study and advise Eagle melodic line Ltd. and Aircraft Ltd. of the alternatives to litigation inthe ordinary courts and the advantages and disadvantages of for all(prenominal) onealternative form of ADR.This submission will call and define each form of AlternativeDispute Resolution (ADR) including each of the forms advantages anddisadvantages. It will also compargon and contrast each form of ADR and call up which form or forms would be beneficial to both EagleAviation Ltd and Aircraft LtdAlternative Dispute Resolution or ADR smoke be defined as any method ofresolving a legal conundrum without resorting to the legal process(Darbyshire, 2001). ADR is now becoming more and more gildedparticularly within the court system as an alternative to handed-downforms of litigation (Practice Statement 1994 1 ALL ER 34, Cresswell,J) (Practice Note 1996 3 ALL ER 383 this is as litigation is aprocess that can be cost ly, time consuming and complicated, thereforeADR is an alternative which can be useful to all parties involved.The leading forms of ADR be arbitration, mediation, conciliation and dialog. ADR is not legitimately stick to with the exception of arbitrament, however in mediation when a solution has been reached andagreed by each companionship once it has been written and sign-language(a) by theparties involved it does then become a legally binding document. ADRwill only be successful if both parties involved are in agreement withthe outcome this of course can become more and more difficult if theparties refuse to speak to each other, In these cases litigation maybe the only viable solution, however ADR is ideal where it isimportant that each party maintains an unblemished relationship withthe other party involved this is curiously important within thebusiness community.Arbitration is one of the oldest forms of Alternative DisputeResolution (ADR) it is governed by the 1996 Arb itration Act (AA) andis part of the Advisory, expiation and Arbitration Service (ACAS). The Act states in Section One that the object of Arbitration is toobtain the fair resolution of disputes by an impartial tribunalwithout incumbent delay or expense (Slapper and Kelly, 2003)Arbitration can only transpire if both parties involved agree to it,it is the only form of ADR t... ...ional decision withoutthe berth getting out of hand. Each party will in crook be able tostate what they feel is the nature of the dispute out front negotiating asuitable outcome. Negotiation is slightly different to conciliationand Mediation as the person negotiating acts on your behalf andrepresents and looks after your interests, a successful negotiatorwill be able to reach a conclusion where they are able to achieve mostof their parties wishes but without causing the other party to feelthey have lost and therefore detach themselves from the rest of thenegotiation process and then choose to pursue a litigation option.Conciliation can be seen as a form of Mediation in fact some peoplesay that the only difference betwixt them is that Conciliators havemore power than Mediators as they can suggest ground for compromiseand the possible basis for a conclusive agreement (Slapper and Kelly,2001). Conciliation like Arbitration is part of ACAS and likeMediation tries to allow parties to finalize an outcome between themthat suits them both, however it does not always guarantee that adispute will be settled and will not start to litigation anyway.

Mobile Phone Security

This fact sheet has been developed for the Consumer Education Program by the communication theory Commission of Kenya. It was compiled by studying material from various authoritative sources and adopting what Is universally accept able and relevant to the Kenya situation. The fact sheet is intended to enable Consumers permit a good understanding of the issues discussed and hence empower them when qualification decisions regarding CIT products and suffices. unveiling One of the biggest threats that a lively cry drug user faces today Is evil or theft of the send for.Not only Is the mobile valued as a physical device, the phone may contain individualized and financial entropy stored in the handset or in the phones subscriber identity faculty (SIMI observation). While a stolen SIMI cornerstone be barred by a mobile network once the theft has been reported it Is a bend harder to bar the handset from macrocosm use with different SIMI card. Unless the user had defend his personal entropy with a PIN prior to the theft or loss of the phone, this data can be accessed by unauthorized persons. unstable phone users normally store a wide range of reading on their phones.This instruction can either be stored in the phones national or immaterial memory (depending on the make and elanl of the phone) or In the SIMI card. The SIMI card Is used importantly to store contacts and short messages bandage the phones memory is used to store information such(prenominal) as personal photos, emails, and calendar items. In order to prevent unauthorized persons from using the phone and further gaining access to the stored Information, some mobile phones prolong trade protection features which the user can activate. This fact sheet has been developed to address security of the information stored and what to do should you lose the phone.Securing the information stored. There are at to the lowest degree two regularitys one can use to secure the Information store d on a mobile phone. These are a) SIMI lock This method disciplines advantage of the SIMI card as a storage element to secure private Information associated with the subscriber. The subscriber uses a PIN number which is mostly a four-spot digit code which should only be known to him and is always prompted by the mobile phone every time the SIMI card is inserted into the phone. It Is an effectual method since even If the subscriber looses the SIMI card the other person cannot access any(prenominal) information stored on it. Phone lock mobile phone security This method takes advantage of a password to lock the mobile phone such that access to the phones functions can only be permitted upon input of the classify password. An eight-digit code is more secure than a four-digit code. Most phones in addition have an inbuilt an automatic phone lock system which kicks In afterward a stipulated time period e. G. 30 seconds when activated which Is mostly used as a keypad lock and subscr ibers are certain to take advantage of this features to enhance the security setting AT tenet phones. N more nana el n a evolves Delve capable AT achieving emails, security in particular of corporate email with sensitive internal and external data has become a major concern. This means that mobile handsets accord data which previously only resided in computers. Since this method is more effective and protects more information than the first, subscribers are advised to always lock their phones especially if they hold any sensitive information. Safeguarding your Handset Some of the ways to cargo deck your mobile safe include Keep your phone safe and forth of sight.Only give your number to your friends and people you trust. Avoid using your phone in the street. If you need to call someone in a public place, be discrete and be somewhere where you can see what is happening somewhat you. Use a PIN code to lock your phone. If youre walking altogether put your phone on silent or vibrate mode so your ring tone doesnt draw attention to you. Be supple while walking and testing at the same time. Security-mark your phone with a queer code. The best place is underneath the barrage.Many mobile phones are stolen in public places such as cinemas, pubs and nightclubs, especially when they are left on a bar, table or on a seat, so dont pull your phone in such places unattended. Dont leave your phone unattended in a car if you must, put it out of sight and turn it off or switch to silent mode. It takes seconds for a thief to smash a window and enter a car. For a Bluetooth or Wi-If enabled phone ensnare antivirus software to help guard against harmful programs or viruses. For the sake of the pencil eraser of very young children always keep the phone out of their reach.Avoid making easily identifiable entries in the phone e. G. mum or dad for the security of such persons should the phone be befogged. There are other methods of securing your phone that are depend ent on the genealogy that the phone is based on. The two main technologies used for the provision of mobile services are GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access). Phones based on these two technologies connect to their several(prenominal) networks differently, so the security features differ slightly. Mobile phone security Your GSM Phones unequaled(p) Equipment Identification Number Each GSM mobile phone has a alone(predicate) electronic serial number called the copy (International Mobile Equipment Identification) number, which can be identified by the GSM network. It is a 15-digit number programmed into the handset and also compose is at the back of the handset, under the onslaught. On most GSM handsets, it can De Oligopoly on ten managers screen Day pressing ten Key successiveness using the keypad, when the phone is switched on.Upon purchase of a mobile handset, users are advised to record their MIME number for use in case the mobile phone is lost or stolen. Your mobile phone service supplier can liaise with the police regarding a lost or stolen handset and, if found, your handset entrust be identified using the MIME. Thieves are deterred from stealing mobile phones by MIME blocking. Blocking an MIME on a mobile phone network prevents a GSM mobile phone from beingness used with any SIMI on any Kenya GSM network. Mobile carriers are able to block the use of customers lost or stolen mobile phones and unblock vulcanised mobile phones on their network.They have also agreed to exchange their lists of close up and unblocked MIME numbers with other mobile carriers so these can also be processed (blocked/unblocked) on all mobile networks. The CDMA phone unique electronic identification number CDMA phones also have a unique electronic identification number, the Electronic Serial Number (SENSE). This number can be found on the back of the CDMA handset under the bombing and usually has eight digits, combining letters and numbers. Users are advised badger record this number for identification purposes in case the phone is lost or stolen.Hidden battery power Some mobile phones are knowing to reserve battery power. If the mobile phone battery is very low and the user is expecting an important call or is confronted by an emergency situation, and doesnt have a charger at that moment, one can activate this reserve battery power. To activate, press the keys *3370, the cell phone will restart with this serve and the factor will show a significant increase in battery power. This reserve will get replenished the next time one charges their cell phone.However it should be noted that this only works on some phones. What to do if ones mobile handset is lost or stolen If the users mobile phone is lost or stolen, the user is advised to contact their mobile phone service provider immediately to suspend service and prevent unauthorized calls being made and billed to the user. If one has a GSM mobile phone, the provider will 3 Mobile phone security block the subscribers SIMI card and MIME number to prevent heir phone from being used on all Kenya mobile networks.

Critical Analysis of the India Sri Lanka Fta

INDIA SRI LANKA BILATERAL FREE mete extinct AGREEMENT Critical summary INTERNATIONAL TRADE LAW PROJECT REPORT LLB 404 Submitted to Asst. Professor MANISH SHARMA Submitted by ADITYA VASHISTH 13510303809 (VIII Semester) May, 2013 Amity Law School, New Delhi TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION. 3 2. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW. 5 3. CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE ISFTA. 8 4. CHARACHTERESTICS OF THE ISFTA.. 10 5. sagacity OF TRADE UNDER THE ISFTA13 6. LOOKING BEYOND FTA CEPA. 17 7. CONCLUSION19 8.BIBLIOGRAPHY20 INTRODUCTION The growth of regional sof 2od axiss has been one of the athletic field developments in worldwide dealings in re cent geezerhood. During the 1990s, regionalism was c one timeived as a developmental option in itself that would promote hawkishness of flock axis components and help their fast integration into the international economy. As per the institution rely treat on Global Economic Prospects (2005) the number of the Regional affair in balances (RTAs) has mor e than than quadrupled since 1990 rising to around 230 by late 2004 and the change amongst RTA cooperators now constitutes n previous(predicate) 40% of total orbiculate merchandise.Quoting, World swap Organisation (WTO) this report estimates an other 60 agreements at various stages of negotiations. The World Bank report points out that the boom in Regional deal correspondences (RTAs) reflects changes in certain countries raft policy designs, the changing perceptions of the twelve-sided relaxation method process, and the reintegration into the global economy of countries in transition from socialism. Regional agreements vary widely, still all waste the objective of reducing barriers to traffic in the midst of member countries which implies discrimination against shargon with other countries.At their simplest, these agreements merely buy food responsibilitys on intra bloc manage in goods, but many go beyond that to suppress non- responsibility barriers and to ex tend liberalisation to enthronement and other policies. At their deepest, they pick up the terminal of economicalal union and involve the construction of sh bed executive, judicial, and legislative institutions. 1 Among the s reddener member countries of the sec Asiatic Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC), India and Sri Lanka accounts for the volumedst devil-sided trade current in the region.Thanks to the India-Sri Lanka surrender softwood Agreement (ISFTA) that was sign-language(a) amongst the twain countries in December 1998 and operationalized in demonstrate 2000. However, almost at the same time in 1993 the agreement on South Asiatic Preferential Trading Arrangement (SAPTA) was signed among the seven member countries of SAARC. The objective was to promote and sustain trade and economic cooperation within the SAARC region with the exchange of concessions. This pushed the agenda for promoting bilaterally symmetric trade in the midst of India and Sri L anka to the background.However, the negotiations infra SAPTA progressed at a very slow pace and became a time down process. The failure of SAPTA brought about the desire for a idle trade agreement with India to the forefront from the Sri Lankan side. It was felt that such an agreement would give the much required commercialise advance to the exporters from Sri Lanka. India was overly keen to acquire the South Asian markets and expressed its leadingness to consider bilateral exhaust trade agreements with its South Asian neighbours.Accordingly, the India-Sri Lanka apologize Trade Agreement (ISFTA) was signed amid the two countries on 28 December, 1998 in New Delhi, India and came into operation on 1 March, 2000. India and Sri Lanka expression upon regional/bilateral FTAs as a complement to the multilateral handicraft system by ensuring the compatibility of the FTAs with the rules laid down by the WTO. Also, two countries atomic number 18 members of the South Asian Asso ciation for Regional Co-operation (SAARC) which envisaged the formation of a South Asian Free Trading Arrangement (SAFTA) through successive rounds of tariff concessions among member countries.However, the efforts of member countries have not yielded the expected results. 2 A Joint Study convention with representatives from two countries was notice up which submitted its report in October 2003 that paved the way for negotiations on the super Economic league Agreement (CEPA). In the present context of Indo-Sri Lanka trade, the serve agreement aims to remove/ precipitate market access and national treatment barriers, and promote co-operation amidst the function firmaments of the two countries. 3 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW Trade relations between Sri Lanka and India era back to pre-colonial times.Under British rule, trade between the two countries was ge bed to perform the needs of the colonial power in the occupying territory, and was dominated by aftermaths and exports in food- related items. After independence in 1947 and 1948 for India and Sri Lanka respectively, both national governments adopted inward-looking policies c autograph on the concepts of self-reliance and import substitution industrialization. Consequentially, a very broken sharpen of trading took place between what became two virtually unlikeable economies. In 1977, Sri Lanka became the first South Asian country to liberalize its economy, scuttle it up to the rest of the world.However, substandard wares from India the result of excessive inward-looking policies were not competitive against the goods from East Asia that flooded the Sri Lankan market. With exposeial liberalization of the Indian economy during the mid-eighties and further liberalization in 1991, trade began to pick up, particularly in favour of India. Between 1993 and 1996, there was a doubling of two-way trade, and between 1990 and 1996 imports of Indian goods to Sri Lanka grew by 556 per cent. In 1995, India replac ed Japan as the largest source of imports to Sri Lanka, invoice for 8-9 per cent of total imports.For Sri Lanka, it became evident that trade with the SAARC region ultimately amounted to trade with India owing to the sheer size of the latters rapidly emergent economy and expanding middle-class population. Hence, the perceived mutual benefits of free trade between the two countries became increasingly clear. Sri Lankas private sector frustrated by the slow progress of the SAPTA4 to boost regional trade pressurized the government to enter into a free trade agreement (FTA) with the Indian government that would add market access for Sri Lankan exporters. 5Birth of the ISFTA (India Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement)6 Politics was ultimately the major player in the move towards free trade. Sri Lanka entertained the hope of unclutter away the political tensions of the 1980s and engaging Indias assistance once more in solving the North/East conflict of the country. India was propelled by an immediate need to acquire South Asian markets following economic sanctions imposed on the country for the nuclear tests conducted in May 1998. Among other factors, these political results led to the signing of the Indo-Sri Lanka Bilateral Free Trade Agreement (ILBFTA) on December 28, 1998.The Commerce Secretary of India and Finance Secretary of Sri Lanka transfer letters that operationalise the India-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement (ISFTA) between India and Sri Lanka signed in New Delhi on 28 December 1998 by H. E. the President of Sri Lanka and the compu disconcert Prime Minister of India with effect from 1st March 2000. 7 The economic objectives of Sri Lanka were to gain Trade ties with South Asias dominant economic power, to induce the interlingual rendition of Sri Lankas exports from low- abide by added goods to high value-added goods aimed at niche markets, and to hand over low-income groups with cheap consumer imports from India.Moreover, Sri Lanka hoped to commit more export-oriented foreign bring investment (FDI) from third countries by promoting itself as an effective insertion point into the Indian market. With the Board of Investment (BOI) world made a one stop shop in the early 1990s, Sri Lanka has long been a relatively appealing location for foreign investors compared to its more bureaucratized South Asian neighbours. 8 Thus, the agreement with effect from 1st March 2000, aimed to provide traffic free as well as duty perceptiveness access for the goods manufactured in the two countries. both(prenominal) the countries had itemizationed products for immediate duty free ledger entry into severally others territories. India having hold to phase out its tariffs on a large number of items within a period of three years. Sri Lanka, also to do so in eight years. Both the countries had drawn up Negative Lists in respect of which no duty concessions will apply. These Lists would take items on which protection to local industry had be en considered essential. Both the countries intended to reduce the items in the Negative List through periodic consultations. 9 The Agreement sets out the Rules of Origin criteria for eligibility for invidious access.Products having internal value addition of 35% will qualify for preferential market access. Sri Lankas exports with a domestic value addition content of 25% will also qualify for entry to the Indian market if they have a minimum of 10% Indian content. 10 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE ISFTA The conceptualization phase of the ISFTA occurred between December 1998 and March 2000, and was ground on several previous studies and recommendations. 11 The agreement was intended to supersede the animated economic partnership downstairs the SAARC, to wit , SAPTA. Bilateral free trade greements are traditionally formulated using the positive incline improvement, whereby individually participating country catalogues the individual commodities for which it would grant choices to the other. No exonerateheless, owing to the time-consuming record of such a method, the ISFTA was formulated on the negative list approach each country extending concessions/ preferences to all commodities except those indicated in its negative list, namely items of a lovesome nature with regard to protecting national interests. The two countries agreed for preferential treatment on 5112 tariff lines (by 6- digit HS Code).An 8-year time table was devised for phasing out tariffs. Non-tariff barriers, such as Indian State taxes and customs- level procedures (e. g. , landing place tax), were to be gradually removed as well. 12 Taking into account the imbalance between the two countries, Sri Lanka was accorded special and differential treatment the immediate duty- free list (319 items) and 50 per cent preferential duty list (889 items) were receiptsously little than those offered by India (1,351 items and 2,799 items, respectively), while the Sri Lankan negative list (1,180 items) was considerably big than Indias (196 items).Among others, the agricultural sector of Sri Lanka was not pillowcase to liberalization and was include in the negative list. The majority of Indian exports were initially granted lonesome(prenominal) a 35 per cent duty concession with an 8-year tariff decrement period, while Sri Lankan exports were granted a 50 per cent concession with a 3-year tariff reduction period. Moreover, Sri Lanka was granted the freedom to reduce its negative list at her comfort level, instead of a pre-determined formula. Rules of origin (ROO) criteria were also relaxed in Sri Lankas favour.Preferential treatment requires a minimum of 35 per cent domestic value addition, or 25 per cent when Indian inputs comprise 10 per cent. In addition, although the agreement does not feature revenue compensation, Sri Lanka brinytained that tariff concessions would not be granted for high-duty imports such as automobiles import duties are an important source of government revenue and comprise 2 per cent of Sri Lankan GDP. Some aspects of the agreement were deferred for subsequent negotiation these include the number of entry ports, Indian state-level taxes, customs procedures, and the specifics of phasing out non-tariff barriers. 13 The agreement include mechanisms for review and consultation, as well as settlement of disputes above and beyond the protection afforded to both countries nether the safeguards clause. CHARACHTERESTICS OF THE ISFTA The ILFTA between India and Sri Lanka is a landmark in the bilateral relations between the two countries. It is expected to bring about enhanced trade between the two countries as well as to expanded and alter cooperation in a range of economic spheres, including investments. This is the first such Agreement in the South Asian region which could serve as a model for similar bilateral Agreements in the region.It has an institutional framework in the form of the Indo-Lanka Joint Commission, a dispute settlemen t mechanism, and so forth. Its logical implication further lies in that it shtup be implemented more efficiently and also more flexibly, unlike the protracted nature of negotiations generally associated with multilateral arrangements. 14 These following features characterize Indo-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement Elimination of Tariffs 1. By India Zero duty on items upon entering into force of the Agreement the list is to be finalized within 60 days of signing of the Agreement. E) 1351 products. Concessions on material items restricted to 25% on Chapters 51-56, 58-60, &038 63. Four Chapters infra the Textile sector retained in the negative list (Chapters 50, 57, 61 and 62) (TEX) 528 products. Garments covering Chapters 61&03862 while remaining in the negative list, will be given 50% tariff concessions on a fixed basis, subject to an annual restriction of eight one one thousand jillion million million pieces, of which six million shall be extended the concession only if made of Indian fabric, provided that no mob of garments shall exceed one and half million ieces per annum (GAM). 50% tariff preference on five tea items, subject to a quota of 15 million Kg. Per year (TEA) 5 products. 50% margin of preference upon coming into force of this Agreement on all items, except for those on the negative list. To be phased out to zero duty in three years (IR) 2799 products. A negative list of 429 items to be retained (D I) 429 products 2. By Sri Lanka Zero duty on about 319 items upon entering into force of the Agreement (F I) 319 products. Phasing out of tariffs on items with 50% margin of preference on 889 products upon coming into force of the Agreement, with up to 70% at the end of the 1st year, up to 90% at the end of the 2nd year and 100% at the end of tertiary year (F II) 889 products. For the remaining items, (except for those on the negative list), which is the Residual List, preference would be not less than 35% before the destruction of three years, 70% before the expiry of six years and 100% before the expiry of eighth year. (SLR) 2724 products. A negative list of 1180 items (DII) 1180 products. OBJECTIVES The Objectives adopted are go bad how much of the bilateral trade both imports and exports are covered under different categories of concessions offered and received by India and Sri Lanka over the past five years, viz. 1996-97 to 2000-01. To analyze, in terms of 21 HS Sections, the distribution of trade under each category. To analyze the top products in terms of 8-digit HS Classification for India and 6-digit classification for Sri Lanka under each category to identify the success stories. To ascertain the trade potential between the two countries and assess the same in terms of products offered concessions under different categories. This exercise is based on the last year of entropy availability. The concessions offered by the Contracting States have been at 6-digit HS classification. In order to give the aforementioned objectives, the bilateral trade data15 is analyzed at the highest level of integrating for India, viz. 8-digit HS classification by disaggregating all concessions at 6-digit classification to 8-digit levels. ASSESSMENT OF TRADE UNDER THE ISFTAThe India Sri Lanka FTA was signed in 1998 and became operational in March 2000. Mutual phased tariff concessions on different products on 6 digit Harmonized Classification (HS Code) basis have been granted by both the partners. Each side is having its negative lists16 (no concessions), positive list (immediate full concessions) and a residual list5 (phased tariff reductions) as per the framework of ISLFTA. The preferential trade under the FTA is governed by Rules of Origin, which specify the criteria for a product to qualify for tariff concessions from the importation member.After signing of ISFTA, trade between India and Sri Lanka has increased manifold. Indias import from Sri Lanka was US$ 45 million (0. 10% of total imports ) in 1999, which increased to US$ 499 million (0. 29%) in 2006 Indias export to Sri Lanka was US$ 482 million (1. 4% of total exports), which became US$ 2110 (1. 74%) in 2006. Similarly, Sri Lankas import form India in 1998 was 538 million (9. 49%), which increased to US$ 1804 million (18. 46% out-and-out(a) 1) in 2006. Sri Lankas exports to India has grown from US$ 35 million (0. 5%) in 1998 to US$ 490 million (7. 26%, rank 3) in the year 2006. In this way India became the major trading partner for Sri Lanka after the signing of the Agreement. The number of Sri Lankas export items to India increased from 505 in 1996 to 1,062 in 2006 items on 6 digits of HS classification. There is a visible teddy in Sri Lankas exports from agricultural products to manufacturing goods The major products exported by Sri Lanka to India in 2006 include Fats and Oils (22. 3%), Copper and Articles of Copper (8. 6%), Electrical Machinery (8. %) and Spices, Coffee, Tea (6. 2%). Similarly, India exported Mineral Fuel, Oil (22. 44%), Vehicles (18. 08%), Iron and Steel (4. 54%), Machinery, Reactors, Boilers (4. 22%) and Pharmaceutical Products (4. 13%) to Sri Lanka. There has been an increase in total parcel of land of import of Sri Lankan goods from 0. 10% in 1999 to 0. 29% in 2006. The import from Sri Lanka has also increased in the items on the residual list from 0. 2% in 1996 to 0. 47% in 2006. It is berthworthy that there has been an increase in the imports even in the negative list items from 0. % in 2001 to 1. 19 % in 2006. This could be mainly due to the increased awareness to partners market, smoo thening of customs issues and improved access to ports of entry due to the increased engagement of partner countries on products having preferential tariffs on residual list, the so called border effects. By 2008, the ISFTA entered into full force. Both governments were pleased with the results achieved through the Free Trade Agreement and proclaim that it had facilitated the en largement of two-way trade between India and Sri Lanka.India, which was once the second largest exporter to Sri Lanka pre-ISLFTA, has now blend in the islands largest source of imports. Meanwhile India has become the third largest export savoir-faire for Sri Lankan products (after the United States of America and the European Union). The argument is that, given the asymmetrical proportions of the economies of the two countries, if not for the ISLFTA, Sri Lankan exports would not have been able to achieve their current level of market penetration. The bilateral import-export ratio that had been 10. 1 in 2000 had improved in Sri Lankas favour to 5. 31 by 2007. According to the then Indian High Commissioner to Colombo, the ratio may have been as skewed as 401 (in Indias advantage, of course) had the ISLFTA not been in operation. 17 everywhere the ten years in which the ISLFTA has been in operation, Indian foreign direct investment in Sri Lanka has also expanded exponentially, most recently in telecommunications (Bharti Airtel) and glass-manufacturing (Piramal Glass), and biscuits and sweets (Britannia).In 2009, India was the islands third largest foreign investor (after China and the United Kingdom) with inflows of US$78 million and largely attracted to the telecommunications, energy and power sectors (Central Bank of Sri Lanka 2010 114). The Institute of constitution Studies (2008 47-48) has estimated that Indian foreign direct investment has expanded from a accumulative total of LKR165 million in 1998 (1. 3 percent of total FDI) to LKR19. 5 billion in 2005 (8. 3 percent of total FDI). However, the causal participation between the commencement of the ISLFTA and the spiral in inward foreign direct nvestment from India is asserted rather than demonstrated, and may have more to do with pugnacious Indian investment strategies since that countrys economic boom, than the existence of the Free Trade Agreement. 18 IMPACT OF THE FTA Despite its importance in the S outh Asian region, not many empirical studies have been conducted to access the impact of ISFTA. maven study that attempted to analyze the impact of this FTA was conducted by Kelegema and Mukherjee in February 200719. Their study is based on the bilateral trade flows under different categories of products.Sector sensible imports and exports figures are compared before and after the FTA. They have cogitate that the two countries have displayed political will to forge ahead towards economic integration and the immense size disparity between the two economies does not hinder bilateral free trade when appropriate special and differential treatment is accorded to the smaller country. Some naked as a jaybird goods from Sri Lanka have found entry into the Indian market following the exchange of preferences.Finally, they have concluded that the economic benefits of free trade can and do override political problems. 20 Another report on evaluating economic performance of the FTA is ? Jo int Study Group on India Sri Lanka encyclopaedic Economic fusion Agreement constituted by the partner Governments (JSG report, 2003)21. JSG (2003) has concluded that ISLFTA promoted a 48% increase in bilateral trade between 2001 and 2002, and at present India is the largest source of imports into Sri Lanka, accounting for 14% of Sri Lankas global imports.India is the fifth largest export destination for Sri Lankan goods accounting for 3. 6% of Sri Lankas global exports. 22 Based on the success of ISFTA, the JSG has recommended that the two countries enter into a Comprehensive Economic partnership Agreement (CEPA) covering trade in services and investment and to build upon the ISLFTA by deepening and widening the coverage and covering of trade in goods. LOOKING BEYOND FTA CEPA The decision to work towards a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was taken in June 2002.During the yap away of the Sri Lankan Prime Minister to India in June 2002, the Prime Ministers of India and Sri Lanka discussed the profound changes in the international economic and political arena that have been generated by the process of globalization, on the one hand, and emergence of closer regional economic associations, on the other. They agreed on the need to widen the ambit of the ISLFTA to go beyond trade in goods to include services and to facilitate greater investment flow between the two countries.Accordingly, a Joint Study Group (JSG) was set up to make recommendations on how to take the two economies beyond trade towards greater integration and to impart renewed impetus and synergy to the bilateral economic interaction, through the conclusion of a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA). 23 Both sides have committed to an agreement consistent with the rules of the WTO. maculation the numerous shortcomings of the existing FTA must be remedied, its evident achievements can be built upon with relative ease to formulate the new agreement.The required ins titutional support is already in place with the Federation of Indian house of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) and the Ceylon Chamber Commerce, which function as the focal points for economic cooperation, as well as the Indo-Lanka Joint Commission and the FTAs running(a) Group on Customs. The first round of technical-level negotiations (TLNs) on the CEPA commenced in February 2005, sensibly delayed after changes in government in both countries. heptad rounds of negotiations have been faultless by 2006. The CEPA is to cover trade in goods and services, investment liberalization, and economic cooperation.The negotiations on goods focus primarily on reducing the ISFTAs negative lists, relaxing ROO criteria, signing mutual recognition agreements (MRAs) on product standards and certification procedures, and concluding the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) on consumer protection and levelheaded metrology. Particular attention will be given to developing the tack on side of the Sri Lan kan economy. The CEPA will be notified under the GATTs Article XXIV24, which covers real trade instead of under the Enabling Clause which provides more flexibleness to etermine the trade coverage between developing countries. In a nutshell, the main objectives of the CEPA are to 1. Deepen existing preferential trade between the two countries 2. Reduce the negative lists of the ILBFTA 3. Relax ROO criteria 4. Liberalize the services sector beyond the coverage of the General Agreement on Trade in function (GATS) 5. Liberalize investment 6. Facilitate economic cooperation as an impetus for liberalization of the services and investment sectors, with the Indian product line of Credit to play a crucial role. 25 CONCLUSIONThe operationalisation of the ISFTA in 2000 was an important step taken by the two countries to harness the economic complementarities between them. As expected, post ISFTA bilateral trade performance between India and Sri Lanka indicates that exports and imports have grown considerably, accompanied by real product diversification. Despite the fact that the ISFTA was confined to trade in goods, increases in trade links between India and Sri Lanka have been further triggered by large investment flows as well as services integration between two countries over time.Nevertheless, investment flows have been mostly one sided as would be expected, flowing from India to Sri Lanka, where the bulk of Indian investment in manufacturing in the post ISFTA phase has come from Indian investors keen to take advantage of preferential duty access to the Indian market in describe sectors such as Vanaspathi and copper. Nevertheless, the potential for greater linkages in investment and services has been fairly obvious based on recent performance, and in part has encouraged both countries to further deepen integration in these areas under the CEPA framework.It is evident from detailed analysis of postISFTA trade flows that Sri Lankas exports to India have expanded significantly. However, it is also clear that the overwhelming share of the increase has originated in a few commodities, raising concerns about the sustainability of the growth momentum in the long term. The bulk of the exports have been concentrated in two items, namely the vegetable fats and oils and copper and articles of copper, which are not considered to be sustainable in the long run.It is by resolving these issues that the movement towards CEPA could be put on fast track to make it a reality. CEPA has the potential to break new ground in South Asias forward movement towards economic prosperity. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Mukherjee, I. N. , T. Jayawardena and S. Kelegama (2002), India-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement An Assessment of Potential and Impact, SANEI completed study (www. saneinetwork. net ). 2. The Graduate Institute Geneva, HEID Working Paper No 04/2010 An Econometric Analysis of the India-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement. 3. Kelegama, S. nd Mukherji I. N. (2007), India-Sri La nka Bilateral Free Trade Agreement Six Years Performance and Beyond, RIS DP 119, February 2007, look into and Information System for Developing Countries, New Delhi. 4. JSG (2003), India-Sri Lanka Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement, Joint Study Group, October 2003, http//www. ips. lk/publications/etc/cepa_reprot/islcepa. pdf 5. Jayawardena, L. et al. (1993), Indo-Sri Lanka Economic Cooperation Facilitating Trade Expansion through a Reciprocal Preference Scheme, The United Nations University, WIDER, Helsinki. 6. An Act of creed? ten years of the India-Sri Lanka FTA, Law &038 Society Trust, Sri Lanka, March 2010 (PDF File) 7. India Sri Lanka FTA Lessons for SAFTA, CUTS International, Dushni Weerakoon, Jayanthi Thennakoon. (PDF File) 8. Panchamukhi, V. R. et al. (1992), Indo-Sri Lanka Economic Cooperation An Operational Programme, the United Nations University, WIDER, Helsinki. 9. Taneja, N. , A. Mukherjee, S. Jayanetti, and T. Jayawardena (2004), Indo-Sri Lanka Trade in Services FTA II and Beyond, SANEI completed study (www. saneinetwork. net ). &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212 1 An Econometric Analysis of India-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement, HEID Working Paper No 04/2010 2 represent Shome (2001) Harilal and Joseph (1999) Taneja (2001). 3 Several Free Trade Agreements related to goods trade are more of Preferential Trade Agreements rather than Free Trade Agreements. In the case of Indo-Sri Lanka, the terms CEPA and FTA are interchangeable. 4 The SAARC Preferential Trading Agreement (SAPTA) was signed in April 1993 and came into operation in December 1995. 5 RIS-DP 119 India-Sri Lanka Bilateral Free trade Agreement, Saman Kelegama &038 Indra Nath Mukherjee. 6 Available on the Board of Investment of Sri Lanka website, http//www. boi. lk 7 above, melody 5. 8 Supra honor 5. 9 Indo-Sri Lanka FTA An Assessment of Potential and Impact, Saman Kelegama &038 Indra Nath Mukherjee. 10 Supra note 9. 11 See Jayawardena, L. et al. (1993) and Panchamukhi, V. R. et al. (1992). 12 Supra note 5. 13 India had committed to the WTO that it would remove non-tariff barriers by 2004. 14 Supra note 9. 15 The data has been obtained from the Ministry of Commerce (India) electronic database over the period of 1996-97 to 2000-01. 16 Items, which are considered sensitive to the domestic industry by each partner to FTA, are included in the respective negative list. The items in negative list of Sri Lanka are not entitled for any duty concessions for imports from India. The same rule applies in case of Indias negative list for Sri Lan kan products. 17 An Act of Faith? ten years of the India-Sri Lanka FTA, Law &038 Society Trust, Sri Lanka, March 2010. 18 Supra note 17. 19 Supra note 9. 20 Supra note 1. 21 Joint Study Group Report on India-Sri Lanka Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (JSG, 2003), can be found at http//www. ps. lk/news/newsarchive/2003/20102003_islcepa_final/islcepa. pdfsearch=India%20Sri%20Lanka%20Trade%20Study 22 Supra n ote 1. 23 Supra note 21. 24 GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. 25 The Indian Line of Credit is a credit facility granted by India to other developing countries to purchase goods and services from India, usually with a long re-payment period. Since January 2001, Sri Lanka has borrowed a total of US $281 million for the purchase of food, petroleum, buses, roofing sheets, and consulting services.

Critical Response to “The Crucible” by Arthur Miller Essay

From its ominous opening, to its dad ending, The Crucible by Arthur Miller is a act driven by misgiving and desire, mirroring the McCarthy trials of the commie hating 1950s. Though its set in 1692, the t cardinal of the play and the themes of intolerance, hysteria, and ruined personality were very prominently felt during 1953, when the play was published. The title, and the actual item of a crucible, suggests something seemingly solid melting away under immense stress. The severe structure of ordering in puritanical America and the spotless reputations of galore(postnominal) good folk melt away to nothing in the go up of fear and trials caused by accusations of witchcraft. Miller uses the imagery of the crucible in the play also, in a quote from Mr. Danforth, We burn a hot fervency here, it melts down all concealment, though what ends up being revealed is the fear and intolerance that control their society.The protagonist, buttocks Proctor, has before the opening if the play had and ended an interest with the Antagonist, Abigail Williams. In this telling of the beginning of the witch trials, it is Abigails desire for r eveningge that leads the girls into the woods to perform a magic spell against Johns wife Elizabeth. It is dialogue mingled with Abigail and John, and later dialogue of the confession of some of the girls, which reveals the affair betwixt them and Abigails compact desire to cause John back at any cost. John is attempting to right his wrong in the affair between himself and Abigail, but spurning her entirely causes more tension. When Abigail cannot easily win john back, and faces punishment for her actions in the woods, she turns the towns fear of witchcraft and the girls hysteria into her own device for revenge, at any cost. The playwright reveals the depth of his characters Abigails ruthlessness, Johns remorse, and Elizabeths faith, through dialogue. Parentheticals within the text reveal tone and demand behind simple words sai d, from emotion words such as enraged to the simple act of a character folding their custody or sitting. Miller has worked in these small gestures and nuances in his lines, giving from each one character a subtext.The characters change as the plot progresses, Abigail goes from dismissing the girls hysteria to victimisation it for her own ends to nearly buying into it herself, beating and hurting herself convinced that what she is doing get out win John back and save them both. We see Abigails maniacal reliance in her own motivations in the scene between her and John only in the forest. Abigail is convinced John still wants her and will do anything, even accuse him of witchcraft in the end, to have John for herself and no one else. The conflict between Abigail and John mirrors the larger conflict of the play between the concrete truth and the truth society in its fear wants to believe. Abigail avarice and covetousness is that of their society, and Johns struggle to do the right thing is the plight of the skillful man within that society, caught by the tide of accusation.Each new action within the play such as the initial accusation, the meetings of Abigail and John, and the confession of bloody shame Warren drive the characters in different ways, and their reactions to those actions create a eye mask effect that further drives the plot and action of the play. THE CRUCIBLE does not have a blissful conclusion, Abigail run away from the horror she has caused and John, along with more other honest people, dies at the hands of the supposed saviors of their society. But a play such as this, and the lesson it teaches, does not need a happy ending. In his play, Arthur Miller has held up a dark mirror to the society of that time and his own, showing how fear and intolerance can kill righteous people, and people who tout right and just motivations can be the real vehicles of destruction that they seek to stamp out.SourceMiller, Arthur. THE CRUCIBLE. Dram atist Play Service, 1982.

Comparing two openings of Lord of the flies and Great expectations Essay

It is important that the origin of a book should be fitting to entice the articulateer to carry on and pursue the reader to arrest the book by means of and an exciting or a mysterious opening that lead encourage the reader to find out what would happen next. I find that Charles demon opening for Great Expectations had to be exciting and hammy because he sold his chapters in weekly issued magazines which meant that if the opening issue wasnt exciting enough for the reader, he or she would non buy any(prenominal) to a greater extent issues of Dickens.In Great Expectations, we argon introduced to the main calibre blip. This is because the story is told in the depart person. We are semi-introduced to the convict halfway through with(predicate) the chapter. I sapidity that Dickens makes the child ( smear) believable by exhibit his innocence through his speech and parley Also Georgina I feel that this quote directs hes non old enough not to add the word also in front of a get up on a gravestone. Another good example of making Pip more believable is when he describes the air of the convict soaked in water, and smothitherd in mud, and lamed by stonesThe repetition of the word and makes the speech more familiar to what a child would say when he or she gets activated or scared of something. Dickens also makes the convict believable by the use of dialect, appearance and actions he makes the convict use during his encounter with Pip at the graveyard. Give it mouth this quote shows that the dialogue is quite true(p) or colloquial. Dickens also shows how the convict frightens Pip as he tilted him demoralise until he looked most powerfully down into mine This could create fear for Pip and also invites the audience to feel poor for Pip and hopefully wanting to know what happens next.The convicts appearance is quite detailed and quite believable every in unsmooth gray, with a great iron on his leg. A man with no hat, and with broken shoes, and with an old rag tied round his head. This quote shows that from his garb and the great iron on his leg, it is quite clear that the convict has flee from prison with difficulty coming crosswise the plains. The convicts actions are also portrayed quite well from the dip and roll to squeeze his shuddered body. It shows that although the convict is really fearful to Pip, I judge that in that location is a more softer side to the convict due to the way as he tried to hold himself together by clasping himself.In superior of the Flies, we are introduce to the to mostly the entire large put away that is on the island resembling Ralph, dogshit and porcine. Dickens shows Ralph through mostly his actions like when he stood on his head and grinned at Piggy or when he jerked his stockings. These actions show he is very adventurous but at the selfsame(prenominal) time is very decent because during that time, pupils were made to pull their stockings up if they barbarous down in school. Alt hough he is not in School, I think it is an automatic habit that Ralph pulls up his stockings. Golding describes Piggy through his speech and dialogue All them other kids This is a good example of why Piggy doesnt fit in on the island. It shows he is a lower class to everybody else due to his grammatical mistakes in his speeches and conversations.His appearance is probably the first reason why he finds life on the island difficult He was shorter than the fair boy and very fatand then looked up through his spectacles The provide and his weight shows him at a disadvantage because he is unable to do anything active when the boys start to play. Also, he has asthma which virtually makes him immobile other wise if he does active things, he could start suffering because he would be out of breath or his glasses would break leaving him nearly blind for they rest of their stay. Golding puts Jack across to the readers by using his dialogue and appearance.From Jacks dialogue, it shows that he is very commanding and should have been the natural leader Choir Stand placid This shows although they are miles away from home, Jack is still able to control his choir. His appearance makes him look quite flagitious during the author of the story. He had red hairs-breadth and wore a black coat with a silver cross on the left breast. The red hair could show that he had a fiery temper like when he found out thither was no man on the island frustrated now, and turning, or ready to turn, to anger. The choir, who were all dressed in black, from a distance they were described as something blueish and the creature The colours used were black and red, which could be linked with evil and anger.Images and setting are used to make the authors root stronger or to think things in their point of view. The Great Expectations setting shows its withdraw shows its secluded, dark and cold and that dark flat wilderness beyond the churchyard, intersected with dykes and mounds and gates was the marshes. I think Dickens sets the first setting in a dark churchyard because the reader would start to wonder why a small boy is doing in a dark churchyard and would try to find out what happens next. The setting is also made brainy by the way Dickens adds features to the countryside like beacons or batteries which connect with state of fight and death making the place too dangerous for Pip to be there. There is a dark atmosphere created in the opening because Dickens wants to give the audience an exciting opening, which will interest his audience.The setting in Lord of the Flies is completely different to Great Expectations. It is set on a tropical island where places like the lagoon show that it is a place, which could be safe for children to swim and play in for example. The island is made into a amiable of paradise that could be similar to the Garden of Eden where in the beginning it was perfect but human presence made the Garden worse. Although quotes show the island is a paradise, there is still an element of evil on the island with the witch-like foretell.The atmosphere in this opening is completely different. I feel that there is a more celebratory atmosphere created here because there are no parents to supervise them and they could do anything they want. Also, they are away from any signs of war or conflict with another country because this story was set during the parky war. Although there are signs when the atmosphere will change like when Ralph becomes the perplexity leader when it should have naturally gone to Jack. We are able to good sense a bit of Jacks anger and the freckles on Jacks face disappeared under a blush of mortificationGolding shows this is not another adventure story because of differences on the island where Jack, the obvious choice for leader, wasnt chosen to be the leader but Ralph was. Disagreements could lead from Jack modifying Ralphs rules and creating his own group or tribe the Hunters.Dickens also doesnt give awa y the plot but it is possible that Pip will find himself in trouble after stealing the food and the file.I felt that Lord of the Flies has succeeded in persuading me to carry on class period it because of the way it is able to combine good characters with a good setting. I also find that it is able to give the story on ii levels, in a literal story level and also a moral level showing us an examination of evil at bottom human nature in the form of the small group of exact boys. I also found Great Expectations has also succeeded in persuading me to read on because of good characters and vivid descriptions of actions. There is also a clarified sense of humour added to the story as well.

Industrial Dispute Tribunal

The industrial ch wholly toldenge motor inn was conceptualized as an established permanent body for easier access to arbitration, an alternative to industrial bring through, and as an avenue for economic growth through its difference resolution and income insurance potential. According to George Phillip in his book A-Z of industrial Relations Practice at the work place quarrel whitethorn be defined as a quarrel in the midst of a worker and an employer or in the midst of a plenty nitty-gritty and employer or between groups of substances and employers, relating to harm and characterise of employment.Industrial trans operation had its roots in the industrial regeneration which created the recent employment relationship by initiating free labor markets and big industrial organizations with thousands of wage workers. As society wrestled with these massive economic and amicable changes, labor problems arose. Low wages, long working hours, mo nononous and dangerous work, and opprobrious supervisory practices led to high employee turnover, violent strikes, and the threat of social instability.In Jamaica 1938 the frustration of the working class which had built up over the years, became explosive. A wave of industrial unrest swept the country, with workers on the waterfront, in the booty industry, transportation sector and the government portion victorious industrial operation. in the midst of January and June of 1938, there were several(prenominal) divulgebreaks of disturbances, amazening with a strike by scold cutters on the Serge Island Sugar Estate in St. Thomas. Other riots included the world(a) strikes on the Kingston waterfront on May 21st and the strike by street cleaners on May 23rd.There were in twain(prenominal) case other(prenominal) general strikes by dock and transport workers, municipal employees, as tumefy as food and tobacco workers. However, wiz of the major industrial reach that took place during this beat was th e Frome Riot of 1938. This riot had left six dead, lambert wounded and 89 charged with rioting. Frome was the breaking smudge in the hum unrest island wide over pay and conditions of work and massive unemployment. It was besides the start of a series of strikes, demonstrations and disturbances in which Sir Alexander Bustamante played a major role.The riots which occurred through come forth this occlusion proved to be very noneworthy as they were the catalysts for the improvement of working conditions for the working class. This was achieved through the unionizeation of divvy up unions and political parties which lobbied for increased workers benefits and rights which eventually led to the granting of Universal Adult voting in 1944, which was the right of all adults, regard little of class, sex, race, religion, etc. to vote. With all this comprehend unrest taking place there became a need for nearly sort of regulation that would govern the working condition and treatment o f workers. As a result a law was instituted that govern labour relations in Jamaica. Industrial frays in Jamaica were now diminishd through the highway of arbitration, provided for under the Public Utility Undertaking and Public Services Arbitration (PUUPSA) Law and the Trade contentions Arbitration and Enquiry Law.The PUUPSA law established that it was punishable for workers to strike or for employers to declare a lockout in connection with any trade brawl. Unless the dispute had been properly spread abroaded to the savvy take care and the minister had failed to act within the time specified in the law. However, there were reliable deficiencies in the law. One of these was the possibility of a strike occurring where there was no industrial dispute as defined and much(prenominal)(prenominal) action would not be illegal. Another was the absence of penalties written into law for the enforcement of awards.Also the citeee acting under the Arbitration Act did not grow the provide to reinstate a worker. It was even difficult to select an arbitrator by parties and this sometimes result in a very long process. perhaps wholeness of the major deficiencies is that Arbitrations only took place in the essential service under the PUUPSA, and in the event where the workers were represented by a union and the grievance functioning allowed for arbitration. The workers became very discontented with the manner in which grievances were handled by Arbitrators.The Government now felt that it was necessary to thrust a modern and permanent State machinery to nail down and nail disputes expeditiously. In 1975 the PUUPSA law was repealed and incorporate into Labour Relations and Industrial Dispute Ac that sought to lay the omissions. This Act was passed in 1975 after much discussion and debate, the Act gave position to companion Laws, which shake generally assisted in improving spirit standards and giving more justice to workers as active participants in the Industrial relations process in the country.Under the Labour Relations and Industrial Dispute Act an employer is required to grant bargaining rights to a trade Union which secures a simple mass of the votes of employees eligible to vote in naturalistic ballot. The Ministry of Labour haves the ballot provided that is it satisfied with the involveant union has made out a prima facie case of representation following a comparing of the audited list quitted by the union or its membership in the face with the list of employees submitted by the employer.The LRIDA provided principally for the establishment of an Industrial Disputes courtroom (IDT) as a final arbiter of disputes compulsory recognition and protection against dis harmony in respect of union membership recognition of trade unions law of closure of disputes in the essential services the setting up of a scorecard of Enquiry a Labour Relations Code and vesting the look of Labour with authority to declare a dispute to b e wizard which is apparent to gravely endanger the national wager and give him power to have the dispute put to compulsory arbitration.The motor hotel was also established to determine and settle industrial disputes and to promote industrial harmony. The industrial Dispute court of justice consist of a Chairman and two deputy Chairmen and not less than two members representing employers and two representing workers and such special members as may from time to time be appointed to form a Special region of the judgeship.The try-ons of the Chairman and Deputy Chairmen must(prenominal) be made by the rector after consultation with organizations representing employers and employers and workers. The rector may increase the number of souls comprising the courtroom if work increase and its necessary. The members representing employers and workers are appointed from gameboards supplied to the Ministry by organization good example of employers and workers, individually.If there is no such jury the subgenus Pastor may organize a decorate as he deems fit. These are now several contributions of the court of justice. In the case of a special Division of the Tribunal to settle disputes affecting the nation saki, the Chairman is appointed by the rector on the joint recommendation of the parties involved and the other two members are appointed, respectively on the recommendation of the employer organization and the trade union involved.Reference of disputes to the Tribunal must be made through the Minister including the determination of the entitlement of categories of person to participate in a ballot under the procedure for settlement of representational claims to the Tribunal, when other mean of settlement failed to resolve the issue in disputes. In a reference by the Minister to the Tribunal of representational dispute, it shall be lawful for the Tribunal to determine the bargaining unit in which the workers may be included.In disputes affecting the N ation Interest the Minister may make for an order calling on the parties to refrain from taking or continuing any industrial action for a period of 30 days. If there is no settlement within those 30 days, the Minister shall call upon the parties to select the death chair of a special Arbitration Tribunal with the employers and workers selecting their representative, respectively, which shall sit as a special division of the Tribunal to prove the dispute.If there is no admitment on the selection of the special Tribunal, the Minister shall refer the dispute to the Tribunal. In other disputes, reference to the Tribunal lead be made on request of all the parties to the dispute where the Minister is satisfies that other means of settlement provided by Collective Agreement have failed to resolve the issue in the dispute.By the amending act of 1978 and a kick upstairs amendment in 1986, the minister is empowered on his own initiative to refer a dispute to the Tribunal of he consider that the dispute should be settled expeditiously and where he is satisfied that attempts were made without success to settle the dispute or if, in his opinion, all the circumstances surrounding the dispute constitute such an urgent or exceptional situation that it would be expedient to do so. The Tribunal is not empowered to hear disputes relating to the appointment remotion of or disciplinary action against any person place cosmos office.Disputes over representational rights of government employees are also not referred to the Tribunal. The award of the Industrial Dispute Tribunal are top, except on a point of law, and shall not be inconsistent with national interest or any enactment regulating or controlling terms and conditions of employment. An award may be made with retrospective effect form a date earlier that the date on which the dispute first of all arose. Thus is particular so in the case of any claim with respect to a new bargaining unit. Roles & FunctionsIndustria l Dispute may be defined as a quarrel between a worker and an employer or between a trade union and employer or between groups of unions and employers, relating to terms and condition of employment. Where a dispute has been referred to the Tribunal and the parties reach full agreement before the tribunal begins to deal with the dispute, the parties willing have to furnish the Tribunal with a copy of the signed agreement and also a letter of request to the Minister to withdraw the dispute. If both parties did not reach an agreement the IDT will therefore initiate the procedure in settling the dispute.The secretary of the IDT will advised the parties (union/individual vs. firm) that a matter with stated terms of reference has been referred to it by the Minister of Labour. The parties may be then summoned to a preliminary hearing usually on a mutually agreed date. The hearing is conducted by a panel consisting of a chairman and two other members, as well as a secretary and one or two recording steno typist. Undertakings from both parties are given to provide written briefs in a specified period. Alternatively the IDT may by letter invite the parties to submit briefs within a specified period, written briefs must be concise and accurate.In the event that either companionship cannot erect a brief by the deadline date, an extension of time must be sought in writing from the IDT. When the briefs are prepared by the party the company and/ or the union may wish to be represented at the hearing by an attorney-at- law or industrial relations professional. If so, the parties must supply the representatives with all the pertinent facts to ensure true statement of detail in preparing briefs, submission maybe elaborated verbally at the hearing. When the briefs have been submitted by both parties, the Tribunal will catalogue a meeting.Opening submission from aggrieved side, usually the union will begin the hearing. Witnesses maybe summoned, documents maybe presented alon g with all relevant turn out submitted in support of the case. When the hearing is completed an award is handed down. Arbitrators are governed by the term of reference. The Tribunal must ensure that awards are capable of creation implemented. If it is, at least two members of the panel a simple majority must sign the award in order for it to be binding this award from the IDT is binding on all parties.If there is a divergency among members of the panel about the terms of the award a minority report may be submitted entirely the members differing with the award should consider whether it is appropriate to import a minority report. This may be necessary where the arbitrator feels that his study maybe damage or where he feels that it is essential to set out his reason. His disagreement is recorded on the award document. If all trine disagree the award maybe handed down by the chairman.The chairman of the panel might also seek clarification of the award in doing this he might sit alone or with other members and invite all parties to attend the sitting. Clarification of the awards may also be provided by the panel in writing, scarcely without out a sitting. On the contrary, the awards may be appealed in the Supreme Court if there is a breach of law, insobriety of one or all panelists or insanity of panelists. The decision made by the Supreme Court on an appeal is binding on all parties, but there are provisions for further appeals through the juridical machinery to the Privy Council in England.An award may be retroactive but it must not precede the date when the dispute first arose. Tribunals have the function of a civil court to enforce the law but are not restricted by the rules and procedures of an general court. The Industrial Dispute tribunal has the advantage of being quicker, cheaper, and more informal, have great arbitrary power and can be staffed by expert in the field. On the other hand, IDT have disadvantages by being less precise than the ord inary court.All the matter arises in Industrial relations are referred to the ephemeris time because tribunal only deals with civil law. Employee rights such as redundancy payment, discrimination, unfair dismissal and maternity leave are matters that are referred to the tribunal. Often it is the interest of both parties to resolve the situation as quickly and as chintzily as possible. To this end tribunals serve a useful purpose. The Industrial Dispute Tribunal performs its task on its own merit and as such they have the power to make awards that are binding and are deemed to be final.These awards can only be overturned on a point of law this means only where the decision of the tribunal may be in error can an appeal be made. The tribunal also has the power to summon any person before to give evidence or produce documents and records in control of that person. Another function of the tribunal is that it may also administer an oath or take an affidavit of any witness appearing bef ore it the tribunal may conduct it hearing in private for the purpose of hearing evidence.If industrial action is threatened or has begun and the dispute is referred to the tribunal it can order that such industrial action not take place or forsake from such time. If the order is disobeyed, offenders may be prosecuted. No action may be taken against members of the tribunal in respect of action make during the course of operations. Where three of the members are selected to constitute a division of the Tribunal and the chairman is one of those members, he shall preside over that division, and where the chairman is not one of those members, a deputy chairman shall preside.In addition where three members of the Tribunal constitute a division thereof and any one of those members dies or is incapacitated after the division begins to deal with the industrial dispute in relation to which it was constituted but before it has made its award, another person shall be selected in accordance with the provisions to fill the emptiness thereafter the proceedings of the division shall be begun de novo unless all the parties to the dispute agree in writing that those proceedings may be continued as if they had not been interrupted by reason of such death or incapacity.A division of the Tribunal may, by agreement between the chairman of the Tribunal and the parties to the dispute with which the division proposes to deal, be assisted by one or more assessors appointed by the employer or an organization representing the employer and an mates number of assessors appointed by the trade union representing the workers.Where any division of the Tribunal is being assisted by assessors and any vacancy occurs in the number of assessors, that division may, by agreement between the person presiding and the party which appointed the assessor whose place has become vacant, either act not withstanding such vacancy or permit another assessor to be appointed by that party to fill the vacanc y.Any industrial action taken in contemplation or furtherance of an industrial dispute in any undertaking which provides an essential service is an unlawful industrial action unless that dispute was reported to the Minister in accordance and he failed to comply or that dispute was referred to the Tribunal for settlement and the Tribunal failed to make an award within the period specified in. The Minister may, as briefly as he is satisfied that any unlawful industrial action in contemplation or furtherance of an industrial dispute in an undertaking which provides an essential service has begun, refer that dispute the Tribunal for settlement.Where an industrial dispute exists in any undertaking which provides an essential service and the Minister is satisfied that the dispute relates to the appointment of any person to a public office or to removal of, or disciplinary action taken against, any person holding or acting in a public office, the Minister shall not refer the matter of tha t appointment, or removal or disciplinary action to the Tribunal but shall cause to be served on the parties directions in writing requiring them to follow, in respect of that matter, the procedure provided by or under the Constitution of Jamaica.

History of Coffee Essay

deglutition chocolate is wiz of the human races most poplar racketings. Some claim it is the most widely consumed fluid in the world aside from water. java is more(prenominal) than a deglutition , however. It is a memory , anticipation, a life succession of consoling moments of modest diversion woven into our plumps. Coffees success as a beverage undoubtedly owes both to the caffeine it harbors and to its sensory pleasure. Coffee lovers come to think the energizing lift of the caffeine with richness and aroma of the beverage that delivers it.Coffee is kindlen in more than 50 countries around the world and the of im port commercialised crop of over a dozen countries, half of which earns 25% to 50% of their foreign exchange revenue from chocolate exportations. More than 10 billion pounds of hot chocolate beans atomic number 18 grown per year, providing more than 20 jillion jobs. Coffee is endemic to Ethiopia and was most likely discovered as a food before it beca me a drink. The most popular legend of how chocolate was discovered involves an Abyssinian goat herder named kaldi. Kaldi awoke hotshot night to find his goats bound around a tree speckled with red cherries.When he smackd one of the cherries, he too started dancing with the goats. As inte lieing as this taradiddle may be it is more likely that chocolate tree was utilize as a food supplement by wandering Ethiopian tribes-men. The tribes-men ar said to discombobulate squashed the crapulence chocolate tree tree cherries and carried them on long journeys, eating them for nourishment as needed. Later, the umber cherries were soaked in water, possibly to restrain wine, but most historians say it was non until 1000 AD, when the Arabs discovered how to boil, that umber bean was serve hot.Coffee was overly believed to withdraw medicative properties. Avicenna, an Islamic physician and philosopher of the eleventh century, said of chocolate It fortifies the members, it cleans the scrape and dries up the humilities that atomic number 18 down the stairs it, and gives an excellent smell to completely the body CHAPTER 1 HISTORY OF deep brown HISTORY OF hot chocolate pic Palestinian women grinding chocolate the old fashioned way, 1905 The history of coffee goes at least as far spine as the ordinal century, though coffees bloodlines re of import unclear.It had been believed that Ethiopian ancestors of todays Oromo people were the premier to have discovered and acknowledge the energizing effect of the coffee bean w mess she il reasonediseg. However, no direct evince has been constitute indicating where in Africa coffee grew or who among the natives might have utilise it as a stimulant or even know almost it, earlier than the 17th century. The story of Kaldi, the 9th-century Ethiopian goatherd who discovered coffee, did not appear in create verbally until 1671 and is probably apocryphal. From Ethiopia, coffee was said to have disp ersed to Egypt and Yemen.The arliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of Yemen. It was here in Arabia that coffee beans were rootage roasted and brewed, in a similar way to how it is now prep ard. By the 16th century, it had r all(prenominal)ed the rest of the Middle eastside, Persia, Turkey, and Union Africa. Coffee thusly fete to Italy, and to the rest of europium, to Indonesia, and tothe Americas. Origins Etymology The rule book coffee entered English in 1598 via Dutch koffie.This word was created via Turkish kahve, the Turkish pronunciation Arabic qahwa, a truncation of qahhwat al-bun or wine of the bean. unmatched possible introduction of the name is the Kingdom of Kaffa in Ethiopia, where the coffee plant originated its name on that point is bunn or bunna. Legendary accounts. There be several(prenominal) legendary accounts of the origin of the drink i tself. One account involves the Yemenite Sufi unavowed Shaikh ash-Shadhili. When traveling in Ethiopia, the legend goes he observed goats of unusual vitality, and, upon essay the berries that the goats had been eating, experienced the alike(p) vitality.A similar Legend of Dancing Goats attributes the husking of coffee to an Ethiopian goatherder named Kaldi. The story of Kaldi did not appear in writing until 1671, and these stories be considered to be apocryphal. It used to be believed Ethiopian ancestors of todays Oromo tribe, were the setoff to have recognized the energizing effect of the native coffee plant. Studies of genetic diversity have been performed on genus genus genus genus genus genus Coffea arabica varieties, found to be of humble diversity but which retained some residual heterozygosity from ancestral materials, and closely-related diploid species Coffea grassephora and C.liberica however, no direct evidence has ever been found indicating where in Africa coffe e grew or who among the natives might have used it as a stimulant, or known about it on that point, earlier than the cardinalteenth century. The Moslem world The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge Of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in gray Arabia.It was in Yemen that coffee beans were eldest roasted and brewed as they ar today. From Mocha, coffee blossom forth to Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Moslem world, coffee drinking dole out to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas. Syrian Bedouin from a beehive village in Aleppo, Syria, sipping the traditional murra (bitter) coffee, 1930.The earliest character reference of coffee notable by the literary coffee merchant Philippe Sylvestre Dufour is a reference t o bunchum in the works of the 10th century CE Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi, known as Rhazes in the West, but more defined information on the preparation of a beverage from the roasted coffee berries dates from several centuries later. The most important of the primal writers on coffee was io-de-caprio, who in 1587 compiled a work tracing the history and legal controversies of coffee authorise Umdat al safwa fi hill al-qahwa.He reported that one Sheikh, Jamal-al-Din al-Dhabhani, mufti of Aden, was the commencement exercise to claim the use of coffee (circa 1454). Coffees usefulness in hotheaded away sleep made it popular among Sufis. A translation traces the spread of coffee from Arabia Felix (the present day Yemen) northward to Mecca and Medina, and then to the larger cities of Cairo, Damascus, Baghdad, and Istanbul. Coffee beans were eldest exported from Ethiopia to Yemen. Yemeni peckrs brought coffee suffer to their homeland and began to cultivate the bean. The prototypical coffeehouse consecrate(a) in Istanbul in 1554.Coffee was at first not well received. In 1511, it was forbidden for its stimulate effect by conservative, orthodox imams at a theological court in Mecca. However, the popularity of the drink led these bans to be overturned in 1524 by an order of the pouffe Turkish grand Turk Selim I, with Grand Mufti Mehmet Ebussuud el-Imadi issuing a celebrated fatwa allowing the intake of coffee. In Cairo, Egypt, a similar ban was instituted in 1532, and the coffeehouses and wargonhouses containing coffee beans were sacked. Similarly, coffee was ban by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church some time before the 12th century.However, in the second half of the 19th century, Ethiopian attitudes softened towards coffee drinking, and its consumption spread rapidly between 1880 and 1886 match to Richard Pankhurst, this was largely due to Emperor Menilek, who himself drank it, and to Abuna Matewos who did very much to dispel the beli ef of the clergy that it was a Muslim drink. Europe pic Dutch engraving of Mocha in 1692 Coffee was noted in footstool Aleppo by the German physician botanist Leonhard Rauwolf, the first European to mention it, as chaube, in 1573 Rauwolf was closely followed by descriptions from opposite European travellers.Coffee was first imported to Italy from the Ottoman Empire. The vibrant trade between Venice and the Muslims in North Africa, Egypt, and the East brought a large categorization of Afri back end goods, including coffee, to this leading European port. Venetian merchants introduced coffee-drinking to the wealthy in Venice, charging them hard for the beverage. In this way, coffee was introduced to Europe. Coffee became more widely accepted later controversy over whether it was acceptable during Lent was settled in its kick upstairs by Pope Clement VIII in 1600, despite appeals to ban the drink.The first European coffee house (apart from those in the Ottoman Empire, mentioned a bove) was opened in Venice in 1645. England Largely through the efforts of the British East India corporation and the Dutch East India go with, coffee became available in England no later than the 16th century according to Leonhard Rauwolfs 1583 account. The first coffeehouse in England was opened in St. Michaels Alley in Cornhill. The proprietor was Pasqua Rosee, the consideration of Daniel Edwards, a trader in Turkish goods. Edwards imported the coffee and assist Rosee in setting up the establishment.Oxfords Queens mannequin Coffee House, established in 1654, is still in existence today. By 1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses end-to-end England. Popularity of coffeehouses spread rapidly in Europe, and later, America. The banning of women from coffeehouses was not universal, but does appear to have been common in Europe. In Ger umpteen women frequented them, but in England they were banned. legion(predicate) believed coffee to have several medicinal properties in this period. For example, a 1661 tract entitled A character of coffee and coffee-houses, written by one M. P. , lists some of these perceived virtuesNot everyone was in favour of this new commodity, however. For example, the anonymous 1674 Womens Petition against Coffee decl atomic number 18 France Antoine Galland (1646-1715) in his aforementioned translation described the Muslim association with coffee, tea and chocolate We are indebted to these great Arab physicians for introducing coffee to the modern world through their writings, as well as sugar, tea, and chocolate. Galland reported that he was sure by Mr. de la Croix, the interpreter of King Louis XIV of France, that coffee was brought to capital of France by a true Mr. Thevenot, who had travelled through the East.On his return to that city in 1657, Thevenot gave some of the beans to his friends, one of whom was de la Croix. However, the major spread of the popularity of this beverage in Paris was soon to come. In 1669, Soleiman Agha, ambassador from Sultan Mehmed IV, arrived in Paris with his entourage bringing with him a large mensuration of coffee beans. Not only did they provide their cut and European guests with coffee to drink, but they also donated some beans to the royal court. Between July 1669 and May 1670, the Ambassador managed to firmly establish the custom of drinking coffee among Parisians. pic.Melange in capital of Austria Austria The first coffeehouse in Austria opened in Vienna in 1683 after the Battle of Vienna, by using supplies from the spoils obtained after defeating the Turks. The ships officer who received the coffee beans, Polish military officer of Ukrainian origin Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki, opened the coffee house and helped popularize the custom of adding sugar and take out to the coffee. Until recently, this was celebrated in Viennese coffeehouses by hanging a line drawing of Kulczycki in the window. Melange is the typical Viennese coffee, which comes abstruse w ith hot foamed milk and a glass of water.Netherlands The race among Europeans to make off with some live coffee trees or beans was eventually won by the Dutch in the late 17th century, when they allied with the natives of Kerala against the Portuguese and brought some live plants back from Malabar to Holland, where they were grown in greenhouses. The Dutch began growing coffee at their forts in Malabar, India, and in 1699 took some to Batavia in coffee pluck, in what is now Indonesia. Within a few eld the Dutch colonies (Java in Asia, Surinam in Americas) had drive the main suppliers of coffee to Europe. Americas.Gabriel de Clieu brought coffee seedlings to Martinique in the Caribbean circa 1720. Those sprouts flourished and 50 long time later there were 18,680 coffee trees in Martinique enabling the spread of coffee tillage to Haiti, Mexico and some otherwise islands of the Caribbean. Coffee also found its way to the island of Reunion in the Indian Ocean known as the Isle of Bourbon. The plant engenderd teenyer beans and was deemed a different variety of Arabica known as var. Bourbon. The Santos coffee of Brazil and the Oaxaca coffee of Mexico are the progeny of that Bourbon tree.Circa 1727, the Emperor of Brazil sent Francisco de Mello Palheta to French dago to obtain coffee seeds to become a part of the coffee market. Francisco initially had difficulty obtaining these seeds yet he captivated the French Governors wife and she in turn, sent him enough seeds and shoots which would commence the coffee perseverance of Brazil. In 1893, the coffee from Brazil was introduced into Kenya and Tanzania (Tanganyika), not far from its place of origin in Ethiopia, 600 years prior, ending its transcontinental journey. The French colonial groves relied hard on African slave laborers.Ancient Production of coffee The first step in Europeans wresting the authority of crosswayion was cause by Nicolaes Witsen, the adventuresome burgomaster of Amsterdam and membe r of the governing board of the Dutch East India Company who urged Joan van Hoorn, the Dutch governor at Batavia that some coffee plants be obtained at the export port of Mocha in Yemen, the source of Europes supply, and established in the Dutch East Indies the project of raising many plants from the seeds of the first shipment met with much(prenominal) success that the Dutch East India Company was able to supply Europes demand with Java coffee by 1719.Encouraged by their success, they soon had coffee plantations in Ceylon Sumatra and other Sunda islands. Coffee trees were soon grown under glass at the Hortus Botanicus of Leiden, whence slips were generously extended to other botanical gardens. Dutch representatives at the negotiations that led to the Treaty of Utrecht presented their French counterparts with a coffee plant, which was grown on at the Jardin du Roi, predecessor of the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris.The introduction of coffee to the Americas was effected by Captain Ga briel des Clieux, who obtained cuttings from the reluctant botanist Antoine de Jussieu, who was loath to deface the kings coffee tree. Clieux, when water rations dwindled during a difficult voyage, dual-lane his portion with his precious plants and protected them from a Dutchman, perhaps an agent of the Provinces suspicious of the Batavian trade.Clieux nurtured the plants on his arrival in the West Indies, and established them in Guadeloupe and Saint- Domingue in addition to Martinique, where a blight had struck the cacao plantations, which were replaced by coffee plantations in a topographic point of three years, is attributed to France through its colonization of many parts of the continent starting with the Martinique and the colonies of the West Indies where the first French coffee plantations were founded. The first coffee plantation in Brazil occurred in 1727 when Lt. Col.Francisco de Melo Palheta pitch-black seeds, still essentially from the germ plasm originally taken f rom Yemen to Batavia, from French Guiana. By the 1800s, Brazils harvests would turn coffee from an elite stupidity to a drink for the masses. Brazil, which like most other countries cultivates coffee as a commercial commodity, relied heavily on slave labor from Africa for the viability of the plantations until the abolition of slavery in 1888. The success of coffee in 17th-century Europe was paralleled with the spread of the habit of tobacco smoking all over the continent during the course of the Thirty Years War (161848).For many decades in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Brazil was the biggest producer of coffee and a virtual monopolist in the trade. However, a policy of maintaining high prices soon opened opportunities to other nations, such(prenominal) as Colombia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Indonesia and Vietnam, now second only to Brazil as the major coffee producer in the world. Large-scale production in Vietnam began following normalization of trade relations with the US in 1995. around all of the coffee grown there is Robusta.Despite the origins of coffee civilisation in Ethiopia, that country produced only a small amount for export until the Twentieth Century, and much of that not from the south of the country but from the contact of Harar in the northeast. The Kingdom of Kaffa, home of the plant, was estimated to produce between 50,000 and 60,000 kilograms of coffee beans in the 1880s. Commercial production effectively began in 1907 with the founding of the inland port of Gambela, and greatly increased afterwards 100,000 kilograms of coffee was exported from Gambela in 1908, while in 1927-8 over 4 million kilograms passed through that port.Coffee plantations were also real in Arsi Province at the same time, and were eventually exported by means of the Addis Ababa Djibouti Railway. While only 245,000 kilograms were freighted by the Railway, this amount jumped to 2,240,000 kilograms by 1922, surpassed exports of Harari coffee by 1925, and reached 9,260,000 kilograms in 1936. Australia is a minor coffee producer, with little product for export, but its coffee history goes back to 1880 when the first of 500  earth (2. 0 km2) began to be developed in an area between northern New South Wales and Cooktown.Today there are several producers of Arabica coffee in Australia that use a mechanical harvesting system invented in 1981. *** CHAPTER 2 INSIGHT ON COFFEE INSIGHT ON COFFEE Coffee pic Roasted coffee beans Type Hot or stone-cold beverage Country of origin Ethiopia, and Yemen Introduced Approx. 15th century AD (beverage) semblance Brown Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted seeds, commonly called coffee beans, of the coffee plant. They are seeds of coffee cherries that grow on trees in over 70 countries. Green coffee, for example, is one of the most traded boorish commodities in the world.Due to its caffeine content, coffee can have a stimulating effect in human s. Today, coffee is one of the most popular beverages worldwide. It is conception that the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant was first recognized in Yemen in Arabia and the north east of Ethiopia, and the polish of coffee first expanded in the Arab world. The earliest credible evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia. From the Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and to the Americas.Coffee has play an important role in many societies throughout history. In Africa and Yemen, it was used in religious ceremonies. As a result, the Ethiopian Church banned its secular consumption until the reign of EmperorMenelik II of Ethiopia. It was banned in Ottoman Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons, and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe. Coffee berr ies, which contain the coffee bean, are produced by several species of small evergreen bush of the genus Coffea. The twain most commonly grown are Coffea canephora (also known as Coffea robusta) and Coffea arabica.Both are cultivated primarily in LatinAmerica,Southeast Asia, and Africa. Once safe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried. The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. They are then ground and brewed to create coffee. Coffee can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. An important export commodity, coffee was the top agricultural export for 12 countries in 2004, and in 2005, it was the worlds seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value. Some controversy is associated with coffee cultivation and its impact on the environment.Many studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption and certain medical conditions whether the overall effect of coffee are ultima tely positive or negative has been widely disputed. However, the manner of brew coffee has been found to be important. Biology Several species of shrub of the genus Coffea produce the berries from which coffee is extracted. The two main cultivated species, Coffea canephora(also known as Coffea robusta) and C. arabica, are native to subtropical Africa and southern Asia. less(prenominal) popular species are C.liberica, excelsa,stenophylla, mauritiana, and racemosa. They are classified in the large family Rubiaceae. They are evergreen shrubs or small trees that may grow 5 m (15 ft) tall when unpruned. The leaves are dark green and glossy, unremarkably 1015 cm (4-6 in) long and 6 cm (2. 4 in) wide. Clusters of fragrant etiolated f bring downs bloom simultaneously and are followed by oval berries of about 1. 5 cm. Green when immature, they ripen to yellow, then crimson, before turning black on drying. Each cu ll usually contains two seeds, but 510% of the berries have only one these are called peaberries.Berries ripen in seven to nine months. Cultivation Coffee is usually propagated by seeds. The traditional method of planting coffee is to put 20 seeds in each hole at the beginning of the rainy season half are eliminated naturally. A more effective method of growing coffee, used in Brazil, is to test seedlings in nurseries, which are then planted outside at 6 to 12 months. Coffee is often intercropped with food crops, such as corn, beans, or rice, during the first few years of cultivation. picMap showing areas of coffee cultivation rCoffea canephora mCoffea canephora and Coffea arabica aCoffea arabica Of the two main species grown, arabica coffee (from C. arabica) is considered more suitable for drinking than robusta coffee (from C. canephora) robusta tends to be bitter and have less flavor but ameliorate body than arabica. For these reasons, about t hree-quarters of coffee cultivated worldwide is C. arabica. However, C. canephora is less unprotected to disease than C. arabica and can be cultivated in environments where C. arabica will not thrive. Robusta coffee also contains about 4050% more caffeine than arabica.For this reason, it is used as an inexpensive substitute for arabica in many commercial coffee blends. Good quality robustas are used in some espresso blends to provide a give foam head, a full-bodied result, and to lower the ingredient cost. The species Coffea liberica and Coffea esliaca are believed to be indigenous to Liberia and southern Sudan, respectively. Most arabica coffee beans originate from either Latin America, eastern Africa, Arabia, or Asia. Robusta coffee beans are grown in western and central Africa, throughout southeast Asia, and to some extent in Brazil.Beans from different countries or regions can usually be di stinguished by differences in flavor, aroma, body, or acidity. These taste characteristics are dependent not only on the coffees growing region, but also on genetic subspecies (varietals) and processing. Varietals are generally known by the region in which they are grown, such as Colombian, Java or Kona. Production Brazil is the world loss leader in production of green coffee, followed by Vietnam and Colombia the last of which produces a much softer coffee.Top twenty green coffee producers  Tonnes (2007) and Bags thousands (2007) Country Tonnes Bags thousands pic Brazil 2,249,010 36,070 pic Vietnam 961,200 16,467 pic Colombia 697,377 12,515 pic Indonesia 676,475 7,751 pic Ethiopia 325,800 4,906 pic India 288,000 4,148 pic Mexico 268,565 4,150 pic Guatemala 252,000 4,100 pic Peru 225,992 2,953 pic Honduras 217,951 3,842 pic Cote dIvoire 170,849 2,150 pic Uganda 168,000 3,250 pic Costa Rica 124,055 1,791 pic Philippines 97,877 431 pic El.Salvador 95,456 1,626 pic Nicaragua 90,909 1,700 pic Papua New Guinea 75,400 968 pic Venezuela 70,311 897 pic Madagascarnote 2 62,000 604 pic Thailand 55,660 653   World 7,742,675 117,319 Ecological effects pic pic A flowering Coffea arabica tree in a Brazilian plantation Originally, coffee nation was done in the shade of trees, which provided a home ground for many animals and insects. This method is commonly referred to as the traditional shaded method, or shade-grown.Many farmers switched their production method to sun cultivation, in which coffee is grown in rows under full sun with little or no woodwind instrument canopy. This causes berries to ripen more rapidly and bushes to produce higher yields, but requires the elucidation of trees and increased use of fertilizer and pesticides, which damage the environment and cause health problems. When co mpared to the sun cultivation method, traditional coffee production causes berries to ripen more slowly and produce lower yields, but the quality of the coffee is allegedly superior.In addition, the traditional shaded method is environmentally friendly and provides living space for many wildlife species. Opponents of sun cultivation say environmental problems such as deforestation, pesticide pollution, habitat destruction, and soil and water degradation are the side effects of these practices. The American Birding Association, Smithsonian Migratory Bird- Center, Rainforest Alliance, and the Arbor Day Foundation have led a campaign for shade-grown and organic coffees, which it says are sustainably harvested.However, while certain types of shaded coffee cultivation systems show greater biodiversity than full-sun systems, they still compare indisposed to native forest in terms of habitat value. Another fuck concerning coffee is its use of water. According to New Scientist, if using industrial farming practices, it takes about 140 liters of water to grow the coffee beans needed to produce one cup of coffee, and the coffee is often grown in countries where there is a water shortage, such as Ethiopia.By using  sustainable agriculture methods, the amount of water usagecan be dramatically reduced, while retaining corresponding yields. Coffee grounds may be used for composting or as a mulch. They are especially appreciated by worms and acid-loving plants such as blueberries. *** CHAPTER 3 TYPES OF COFFEE TYPES OF COFFEE Coffea Arabica scientific smorgasbord Kingdom Plantae (unranked) Angiosperms (unranked) Eudicots (unranked) Asterids Order Gentianales Family Rubiaceae Genus Coffea Species C. arabica binominal name Coffea arabica .Coffea arabica is a species of coffee originally indigenous to the mountains of Yemen in the Arabian Peninsula, hence its name, and also from the south western highlands of Ethiopia and southeastern Sudan. It is also known as the coffee shrub of Arabia, mountain coffee or arabica coffee. Coffea arabica is believed to be the first species of coffee to be cultivated, beingness grown in southwest Arabia for well over 1,000 years. It is considered to produce better coffee than the other major commercially grown coffee species, Coffea canephora (robusta). Arabica contains less caffeine than any other commercially cultivated species of coffee. ridiculous plants grow to between 9 and 12 m tall, and have an open branching system the leaves are opposite, simple elliptic-ovate to oblong, 612 cm long and 48 cm broad, glossy dark green. The flowers are white, 1015 mm in diameter and grow in axillary clusters. The return is a drupe (though commonly called a berry) 1015 mm in diameter, maturing bright red to violet and typically contain two seeds (the coffee bean). Distribution and habitat Originally found in the southwester n highlands of Ethiopia, Coffea arabica is now out of date there in its native state, and many populations appear to be mixed native and planted trees.It is common there as an understorey shrub. It has also been vulcanised from the Boma Plateau in southeastern Sudan. Coffea arabica is also found on Mt Marsabit in northern Kenya, but it is unclear whether this is a really native or naturalised occurrence. Yemen is also believed to have native Coffea arabica growing in fields. Cultivation Coffea arabica takes about seven years to mature fully and does trump out with 1- 1. 5 meters (about 40-59 inches) of rain, evenly distributed throughout the year. It is usually cultivated between 1,300 and 1,500 m altitude, but there are plantations as low as sea level and as high as 2,800 m.The plant can tolerate low temperatures, but not frost, and it does best when the temperature hovers around 20 C (68 F). Commercial cultivars mostly only grow to about 5 m, and are frequently trimmed as l ow as 2 m to facilitate harvesting. Unlike Coffea canephora, Coffea arabica prefers to be grown in light shade. Two to four years after planting Coffea arabica produces small, white and highly fragrant flowers. The lovable fragrance resembles the sweet smell of jasmine flowers. When flowers open on sunny days, this results in the greatest numbers of berries.This can be a curse however as coffee plants tend to produce too many berries this can lead to an inferior harvest and even damage yield in the following years as the plant will favor the suppuration of berries to the detriment of its own health. On well kept plantations this is prevented by cut back the tree. The flowers themselves only last a few days leaving john only the thick dark green leaves. The berries then begin to appear. These are as dark green as the foliage, until they begin to ripen, at first to yellow and then light red and finally darkening to a glossy deep red.At this point they are called cherries and are w ork for picking. The berries are oblong and about 1 cm long. Inferior coffee results from picking them too early or too late, so many are picked by hand to be able to better recognize them, as they do not all ripen at the same time. They are sometimes shaken off the tree onto mats, which means that ripe and unripe berries are collected together. The trees are difficult to cultivate and each tree can produce anywhere from 0. 55 kg of dried beans, depending on the trees individual character and the clime that season.The real prize of this cash crop are the beans inside. Each berry holds two locules containing the beans. The coffee beans are actually two seeds within the fruit there is sometimes a third seed or one seed, a peaberry in the fruits at tips of the branches. These seeds are covered in two membranes, the outer one is called the parchment and the inner one is called the silver skin. In perfect conditions, like those of Java, trees are planted at all times of the yea r and are harvested year round. In less warning conditions, like those in parts of Brazil, the trees have a season and are harvested only in winter.The plants are vulnerable to damage in ridiculous growing conditions and are also more vulnerable to pests than the Robusta plant. Gourmet coffees are almost exclusively high-quality mild varieties of coffea arabica, like Colombian coffee. Arabica coffee production in Indonesia began in 1699. Indonesian coffees, such as Sumatran and Java, are known for heavy body and low acidity. This makes them ideal for blending with the higher acidity coffees from Central America and East Africa. Coffea canephora Scientific classification Kingdom Plantae (unranked) Angiosperms (unranked) Eudicots (unranked) Asterids Order Gentianales Family Rubiaceae Genus Coffea Species C. canephora Binomial name Coffea canephora Coffea canephora (Robusta Coffee Coffea robusta) is a species of coffee which has its origins in central and western subsahar an Africa. It is grown mostly in Africa and Brazil, where it is often called Conillon. It is also grown in Southeast Asia where French colonists introduced it in the late 19th century. In recent years Vietnam, which only produces robusta, has surpassed Brazil, India, and Indonesia to become the worlds single largest exporter.Approximately one third of the coffee produced in the world is robusta. Canephora is easier to care for than the other major species of coffee, Coffea arabica, and, because of this, is cheaper to produce. Since arabica beans are often considered superior, robusta is usually limited to lower grade coffee blends as filler. It is however often included in instant coffee, and in espresso blends to foster the formation of crema. Robusta has about twice as much caffeine as arabica. Description Coffea canephora grew.